Unlike other slavic languages, the polish language (“język polski“) uses Latin Script with additional diacritics for the special polish phonemes (such as ą and ł).A good rule to remember is that with the most Polish words, the stress lies on the second last syllable. Also, the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels after another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). These sounds may be called 'hardened' or 'historically soft' consonants. [31] The irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of kogo zobaczyliście? In some phonological descriptions of Polish that make a phonemic distinction between palatized and unpalatized labials, [ɨ] and [i] may thus be treated as allophones of a single phoneme. The vowel shift may thus be presented as follows: Note that the /u/ that was once a long /oː/ is still distinguished in script as ó. That may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement: muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ - genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. At the end of a word, obstruents are pronounced voiceless (unless followed by a word beginning with a voiced obstruent, when the above cluster rules apply). Before /l/ or /w/, nasality is lost altogether and the vowels are pronounced as oral [ɔ] or [ɛ]. Overall: The historical shifts are the reason for the alternations o:ó and ę:ą commonly encountered in Polish morphology: *rogъ ('horn') became róg due to the loss of the following yer (originally pronounced with a long o, now with /u/), and the instrumental case of the same word went from *rogъmъ to rogiem (with no lengthening of the o). Phonetically, they consist of an oral vowel followed by a nasal semivowel (są is pronounced [sɔw̃], which sounds closer to Portuguese são [sɐ̃w̃] than French sont [sɔ̃] – all three words mean "[they] are"). Those dialects also can palatalize /l/ ([lʲ]) in every position, but standard Polish does so only allophonically before /i/ and /j/. Polish, like other Slavic languages, permits complex consonant clusters, which often arose from the disappearance of yers (see § Historical development above). 8. Former long /eː/ was written é until the 19th century (á for former long /aː/ was already in disuse). and an MA thesis. Russian and Czech incorporate only 43 and 42, respectively. In most circumstances, consonants were palatalized when followed by an original front vowel, including the soft yer (ь) that was often later lost. Polish contrasts affricates and stop–fricative clusters[18] by the fricatives being longer in clusters than in affricates:[19]. [22] Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), wstrząs [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). Ala [ʔala]). Some eastern dialects also preserve the velarized dental lateral approximant, [ɫ̪], which corresponds with [w] in standard Polish. To determine (based on the spelling of the words) whether a given cluster has voiced or voiceless obstruents, the last obstruent in the cluster, excluding w or rz (but including ż), should be examined to see if appears to be voiced or voiceless. The approximants /j/ and /w/ may be regarded as non-syllabic vowels when they are not followed by a vowel. Consonants not classified as soft are dubbed 'hard'. [23] Some examples follow (click the words to hear them spoken): In some dialects of Wielkopolska and the eastern borderlands, /v/ remains voiced after voiceless consonants. Either vowel may follow a labial consonant, as in mi ('to me') and my ('we'). In standard Polish, both ⟨h⟩ and ⟨ch⟩ represent /x/. [26] [ɫ̪] and [lʲ] are also common realizations in native speakers of Polish from Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. Like other Polish vowels, it developed long and short variants. The phenomenon applies in word-final position and in consonant clusters. For example: *dьnь became dzień ('day'), while *dьnьmъ became dniem ('day' instr.). For example, fizyka (/ˈfizɨka/) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. /x/ has the strongest friction before consonants [x̝], weaker friction before vowels and weakest friction intervocalically, where it may be realized as glottal [h] (this variant "may appear to be voiced").[20]. The palatalization of labials has resulted (according to the main phonological analysis given in the sections above) in the addition of /j/, as in the example pies just given. Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants: the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation, the stress normally becomes regular: uniwersytet (/uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/, 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu (/uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/) and derived adjective uniwersytecki (/uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Those endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress: zrobiłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable and zrobilibyśmy ('we would do') on the second. The historical palatalized forms of some consonants have developed in Polish into noticeably different sounds: historical palatalized t, d, r have become the sounds now represented by ć, dź, rz respectively. [24] It may also appear following word-final vowels to connote particular affects; for example, nie ('no') is normally pronounced [ɲɛ], but may instead be pronounced [ɲɛʔ] or in a prolonged interrupted [ɲɛʔɛ]. [14][15] One study found that in an intervocalic context a trilled [r] occurs in less than 3% of cases, while a tapped [ɾ] occurred in approximately 95% of cases. /r/ has been traditionally classified as a trill, with a tap [ɾ] supposedly only occurring as an allophone or in fast speech. [21] Similarly, the palatal nasal [ɲ] in coda position may be realized as a nasalized palatal approximant [ȷ̃]. Vowel nasality in Polish is partially preserved from Proto-Slavic, having been lost in most other modern Slavic languages. The Polish vowel system consists of six oral monophthongs and two nasal diphthongs. /n/ has a velar allophone, [ŋ], which occurs before velar consonants (as in bank 'bank'). However, they are more accurately described as retroflex[17] although they are laminal (like the retroflexes of Standard Chinese). The l sound is also normally classed as a soft consonant: like the preceding sounds, it cannot be followed by y but takes i instead. In the Masurian dialect and some neighbouring dialects, mazurzenie occurs: retroflex /ʂ, ʐ, t͡ʂ, d͡ʐ/ merge with the corresponding dentals /s, z, t͡s, d͡z/ unless /ʐ/ is spelled ⟨rz⟩ (a few centuries ago, it represented a palatalized trill /rʲ/, distinct from /ʐ/; only the latter sound occurs in modern Polish). Polish obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives) are subject to voicing and devoicing in certain positions. This intervocalic glottal stop may also break up a vowel hiatus, even when one appears morpheme-internally, as in poeta ('poet') [pɔʔɛta] or Ukraina ('Ukraine') [ʔukraʔina]. Some of the students also said that they perceived the lateral ⟨ł⟩ as a variant of ⟨l⟩, which, he further notes, along with the necessity of deciding from context whether the sound meant was /w/ or /l/, made people hostile towards the sound. Another study by the same researcher showed that in a postconsonantal position, /r/ is realized as a tapped [ɾ] in 80-90% of cases, while trilled [r] occurs in just 1.5% of articulations. [ ɛ ] this leads to neutralization of voiced/voiceless pairs in those positions ( or equivalently, restrictions combinations... Are all voiced or all voiceless to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five.., including across a word boundary, the obstruents are all voiced or all voiceless as. Instead be transcribed as /c/ and /ɟ/ ( as if they were a single.... 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